Digitalis Toxicity Report

The accounts of digitalis toxicity due to overdose in 1985 specify 1,015 cases including 584 patients that are below 6 years old and 56 patients aging 6-17 years old. The greater part of these documented toxicity cases (83%) come about without the purpose of overdosing (Kwon, 2006). The prevalence of digitalis toxicity had a rising trend for some time until it was acknowledged in the early 1990’s that reduction in toxicity cases was observed. Among the studies that concluded the decreased cases of digitalis toxicity was the research conducted by Haynes et al.In there study, it was noted that the cases of digitalis toxicity in United States and United Kingdom manifested a decreasing trend in the past two decades. Hospitalizations in relation to digitalis toxicity were notably reduced in United States whereas in United Kingdom the cases of ambulatory digitalis toxicity also lessened. The decreased incidence of digitalis toxicity in the U. S. is correlated to the diminished admin istration of this drug. The dilemma due to digitalis toxicity has significantly reduced in the two above mentioned countries (Haynes, et al, 2008).Though incidence of digitalis toxicity is turning to the decreasing side it is no reason to disregard the threats of toxicity that consumers of this substance are exposed to. Digitalis is drug extracted from the leaves of the plant called Foxglove (Digitalis purpurea). The utilization of foxglove as a medicinal plant already exists for centuries. But the popularity of this plant was not that intense until an English botanist and physician named William Withering in the 1700’s pioneered the establishing of digitalis as a cardiac drug.This doctor conducted a detailed study of digitalis. Withering was also responsible for the determination of the most effective preparation of the drug as well as the correct dosages for various heart ailments. This English physician was also responsible for the setting up the standards of when to abort the therapy using digitalis because of its toxic effects (NetIndustries, 2008). The mode of action of digitoxin involves the inhibition of the Na-K ATPase in myocytes to increase heart muscles contractility.The drug attach to the binding sites situated in the extra cytoplasm of the sodium- and potassium-activated adenosine triphosphate (Na-K ATPase) pump preventing the active transfer of Na and K across the cell membranes. The resulting high concentrations of sodium and calcium as well as the low amounts of potassium in the intracellular part of the muscle cell promotes the fourth stage myocardial action potential creating a decreased conduction velocity and amplification of ectopic activity.The end result boost in the contractility of heart muscles due to the action of digitalis is beneficial to various heart ailments (Kwon, 2006). This is utilized as a drug therapy for heart problems. This substance is specifically indicated in cases of persistent systolic heart failure symptoms despite the administration of diuretics, angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE), and beta blocker; and, cases of congestive heart failure with atrial fibrillation.The objective of the therapy using digitoxin ranges from 0.5 to 1. 0 ng/mL. The administration of digitoxin is contraindicated in patients that are receiving primary therapy for acute decompensated heart failure stabilization and during cases of sinus or atrioventricular (AV) except for cases of prior pacemaker treatment applied (Kwon, 2006). Medicine administered within the range of its therapeutic dose rarely produce toxicity. The established daily therapeutic dose of digitoxin varies from 0. 0005 mg/kg (for young infants) to 0. 75 mg/kg (for mature individuals).This drug in tablet preparations has the estimated absorption of 70-80% and a bioavailability of 95%. In oral administrations (per os / PO), the action onset of digitoxin transpires after 30-120 minutes whereas in intravenous route action onset to occur requires onl y 5-30 minutes. The threshold of the effect of this drug after oral and intravenous routes is 2-6 hrs and 5-30 minutes respectively. An estimate of 60-80% of the digitoxin intake is excreted by the kidney without structure and properties change(Kwon, 2006). The lethal dose of this drug varies with the age of the patients.Doses above 10 mg per individual even in healthy adults will cause death but doses lower than 5 mg infrequently produces problems such as toxicity. In children, the intake of doses above 0. 3 mg/kg or 4 mg per individual often causes fatality (Kwon, 2006). The population which is highly at risked with the development of digitoxin toxicity are the infants and the old people. The threats of digitalis toxicity include intake of medicines like digitoxin and digoxin; and, digitalis interaction with other drugs like verapamil, amiodarone, and quinidine.Having below normal levels of potassium in the body such as the patients medicated with potassium losing diuretics is als o at risk of the toxic effects of digitalis. People with kidney damage and having little amounts of magnesium are also prone to digitalis toxicity. Caution should be observed in administering digitalis as well as other medicines to patients with kidney damage because the capacity of the body to excrete any drug taken is also diminished along with the kidney problem. Thus, the drug has the tendency to accumulate in the kidney and increasing the possibility of toxicity (â€Å"Digitalis Toxicity†).Occurrence of digitalis toxicity can be due to two mechanisms: the above therapeutic amounts of digitalis in the patient’s body, and the lowering of the patient’s digitalis tolerance. The toxicity can be caused by either or both of the mechanisms. The toxicity of this drug can happen with one exposure to the drug as well as the gradual toxicity. Some patients suffer the effects of digitalis toxicity despite the normal blood levels of this drug because of the existence of other digitalis toxicity risk factors (â€Å"Digitalis Toxicity†).Other disease and metabolic conditions that serve as risk factors of the toxic effects of this drug are: hypoxemia, hypothyroidism, and alkalosis (Kwon, 2006). The mortality rates due to digitalis toxicity vary with the details of the population. The direct consequence of cardiac toxicity in digitalis toxicity result to 3-21% mortality rate. Male individuals are more prone to this drug’s toxicity compared to the females. The young and old people have increased risks to digitalis toxicity than the other age brackets.Ingestion of digitalis medicines of their grandparents is the primary cause of toxicity among children (Kwon, 2006). The symptoms of toxicity due to digitalis include strange changes in vision like color perception problems, blurring of vision, having visual blind spots, and having visual bright light spots; nausea; vomiting; pulse irregularities; appetite loss; palpitations; confusion; genera l swelling; lower urine volume; lowered consciousness; and, breathing difficulty during lying down (â€Å"Digitalis Toxicity†).The treatment regimen for digitalis toxicities comprise of specific, symptomatic, and supportive therapy phases. The supportive therapy phase for this toxicity case consists of electrolyte imbalance correction, dehydration treatment using IV fluids, and oxygen support equipped with ventilation. It is frequently prescribed by medical practitioners to supplement potassium in cases wherein the patient has potassium levels lower than 4 mmol/L.The recommendation of diuresis induction is not approved due to the tendency to aggravate the electrolyte imbalances and the renal excretion of the drug is not enhanced by this process (Kwon, 2006). The specific therapy phase involves the administration of digoxin-specific Fab antibody fragments that are noted to be of significant success in treating severe acute digitalis toxicity. This drug is sort of the antidote for digitalis toxicities as well as other complications in relation to digitalis.Immediate administration of digoxin-specific Fab antibody is recommended upon deducing digitalis toxicity. The prompt treatment digoxin immune fab will decrease the morbidity and mortality rates of digitalis toxicities. To contradict arrhythmias that might occur in digitalis toxicity treatment with phynetoin is advised (Kwon, 2006). The recommended method for gastrointestinal cleansing is the utilization of multiple-dose activated charcoal (1gram/kilogram weight of patient/day). Administration of ipecac syrup to induce emesis is contraindicated due to the activation of the vagal tones.Other possible methodologies of eliminating the toxic amounts of digitalis in a patient’s body are gastric lavage, whole-bowel irrigations, and steroid binding resins like colestipol and cholestyramine. These three aforementioned therapeutic regimens though have constraints like the vagal effects and the lack of sub stantial data to support their efficacy in these toxicity cases (Kwon, 2006). Even if the incidence of digitalis toxicity cases have plunged the vigilance regarding this condition should not stop.The drug prescriptions of digitalis for heart problems should be ensured by the medical practitioners to be under the therapeutic dosages. The availability of this drug to children should also be eliminated to prevent the accidental ingestion of this drug. Since digitalis in an important cardiac drug various researches has been conducted involving this medicinal substance. The medical industry should not stop there though; further studies can still be done to improve the value of digitalis as a therapeutic agent without compromising the patient’s safety.

Occupational Stress in Law Enforcement & Intervention Strategies

Occupational Stress in Law Enforcement & Intervention Strategies Stress in law enforcement is complex. Stressors vary by individual and because of that combatting stress is law enforcement is not an easy task. Broad strokes and blanket programs are used in an effort to reach the greatest number of employees with strategies designed to prevent and reduce stress in the field of law enforcement. I believe that a more individualized approach is required to have the greatest impact on officers working in this field.The occupation of a police officer is commonly referred to as one of the most stressful occupations. Causes of stress for police officers can be linked to the organizational structure and the demands of the profession to include shift work, overtime, and years of service. The rigid nature of the organization has been referred to as one of the primary sources of stress for law enforcement. In addition to the stress of the organizational structure, police encounter the threat of violent criminals and disturbing crime scenes as a part of routine daily possibilities.Potential causes of stress for correctional staff are similar to the stress that police officers endure. Stress is derived from internal and external sources to include, prison/jail organizational structure, nature of work-supervision of the inmate population, overtime, shift work, length of time on the job, privacy/safety concerns, threats of inmate violence/actual inmate violence, inmate demands/manipulations, co-workers, specific post or assignments, poor public image, and low pay.Correctional officers and police officers had the highest rates of non-fatal violent incidents at work between 1990-1995 (Finn, p. , 2001). Research regarding causes of stress for law enforcement was inconsistent when attempting to determine the highest rates of stress. Areas of concern for both correctional and police officers that experience work-related stress span from work-related effects to the effects on the em ployees personal life. Officers can suffer physical ailments as a result of work-related stress that include heart disease, high blood pressure, and eating disorders, etc.Studies have shown that disability of officers has been linked to stress related causes. Additional areas of concern are staff burnout, personal and family relationships that include the displacement of frustration onto family/friends and poor work performance which ultimately compromises institutional safety and creates stress for co-workers. One of the most significant causes of stress in law enforcement is critical incidents and the impact of critical incident stress in law enforcement.A critical incident can be defined as â€Å"any situation in which an officer’s expectations of personal infallibility suddenly become tempered by imperfection and crude reality† (Kureczka, 1996). Critical Incidents in law enforcement are loosely defined because the nature of the incidents can affect officers differe ntly. Examples of critical incidents in law enforcement include line of duty death, serious injury of a co-worker, officer involved shooting, traumatic death of a child, hostage and riot situations. Critical Incident Stress can lead to Post Traumatic Stress Disorder.Four to ten percent of individuals who experience a critical incident will develop PTSD. Research shows that 87% of all emergency workers experience the effects of critical incident stress (Kureczka,1996). Stressors can be multiplied by compounding events (i. e. death of a suspect and injury to the officer). The effects of a critical incident affect the officer physically, emotionally and cognitively. Physical affects (effects) can range from headaches, muscle aches, sleep disturbance, decreased sexual activity, decreased appetite, and impotence.Emotional affects include anxiety, fear, guilt, sadness, anger, irritability, withdrawal and a sense of feeling lost. Cognitive affects include flashbacks, repeated visions of th e incident, nightmares, slowed thinking, difficulty in decision making, disorientation, memory lapse, and the lack the ability to concentrate. Intervention strategies include a variety of options that have been implemented in law enforcement over the past twenty years. Some intervention programs are specific to the everyday stressors of the profession while others are more concentrated to areas involving critical incidents.The development and establishment of stress programs or Employee Assistance Programs are types of intervention programs available. Programs vary by department and in levels of perceived success. Possible program components include trained correctional staff assisting other correctional staff that have experienced a critical incident at work, implementation of a counseling team, implementation of a stress unit, critical incident debriefing, increased communication with employees, wellness programs, staff involvement in policy making and training & education program s.The benefits of the implementation of programs to help employees deal with stress include, reduction of overtime costs incurred due to sick time usage, reduction in staff turnover rates, enhanced staff morale coupled with improved job performance, increased institutional and officer safety, improved relations with the union, staff feeling that management/administrators value them as individuals. The role of the administration in providing support to officers’ both pre and post critical incidents has a tremendous The administration’s role in combatting critical incident stress is mutually beneficial to the employee and the agency.The agency impact is on the organizational structure (i. e. other officers, the department, the public, and families) as a whole as well as budgetary impact that affects all areas (retention, training, etc. ). When compared to the cost of intervention, it is financially more beneficial to the organization to spend money on intervention which in turn also benefits the entire organizational structure. . Intervention strategies specific to critical incidents include counseling for employees with counselors that have a thorough understanding f the type of work of law enforcement, as well as the availability of peer support officers that are specially trained to recognize problems and make referrals. The availability of pre-incident stress education and stress management training for new recruits and seasoned employees throughout employment allows employees who experience critical incident stress to recognize the signs and seek help. Additional orientations for families also provides for information on stress in law enforcement to be communicated to prepare families for what to expect in the event that an incident occurs.References Finn, P. (2001). Addressing Correctional Officer Stress: Programs and Strategies. Criminal Justice Media, Inc. Retrieved from http://search. proquest. com/socialsciences/docview/ 214386062/fulltex t/ 136F9663B05382C356E/ 3? accountid=36616 on May 28, 2012 Kureczka, A. (1996). Critical Incident Stress in Law Enforcement, FBI Law Enforcement Bulletin. Retrieved from http://search. proquest. com/socialsciences/docview/204132441/ fulltextPDF/136F9D8BC523F17E9DF/2? accountid=36616 on May 28, 2012 Feemster, S. 2010). The Forensic Examiner. Addressing the Urgent Need for Multi- Dimensional Training in Law Enforcement Retrieved from http://search. proquest. com/ SocialSciences/docview/859010103/fulltextPDF/136FB22E6C16A280637/4? accountid= 36616 on May 28, 2012 To Quit or not to Quit: Perceptions of Participation in Correctional Decision Making and the Impact of Organizational Stress Retrieved from http://search. proquest. com/social sciences/docview/214563577/136FB3A66E950711643/2? accountid=36616 on May 28, 2012Jaramillo, F. , Nixon, R. & Sams, D. (2004). The Effect of Law Enforcement Stress on Organizational Commitment. Retrieved from http://search. proquest. com/socialsciences/ d ocview /211301458/ fulltextPDF/136FB495CC464AAE192/14? accountid=36616 on May 28, 2012 McCarty, W. , Zhao, J. & Garland, B. , (2007). Occupational Stress and Burnout between Male and Female Police Officers Retrieved from http://search. proquest. com/socialsciences/ docview/211277163/fulltextPDF/136FBFDCC4976A43D80/1? accountid=36616 on May

Marlow in Conrad’s Heart of Darkness

In Heart of Darkness Conrad tries to deal with issues which are almost inexpressible.   The mysterious effect of the jungle wilderness on Kurtz, and on Marlow himself, puzzles the imagination and bewilders the understanding.   We might ask why Conrad chooses to tell the story through the character of Marlow, rather than simply to set it as a first person narrative.   The story is, in fact, about Kurtz, and about the way that contact with the primitive touches on the reality beneath human civilization, but it is also part of Marlow’s autobiography.Marlow is a character, not just a narrative voice, and his characterization enables us to judge and understand what he tells us.   He stands for certain impressive values – the practicality of the seaman’s life, the belief in the value of work, the refusal to judge too quickly, and the calmness of mind which allows him to consider and respond to the ambiguities in Kurtz’s experience. With his detached and skeptical manner, the fruit of a life among practical things, he makes the extraordinary story as believable as is possible.   We do not identify with him exactly, and he is not simply the voice of Conrad, but he is a convincing and unpretentious narrator who offers us glimpses into the ineffable.Much of the earlier part of the novel is concerned with establishing Marlow’s character and credentials as a narrator.   The actual narrator who speaks on the first page tells us that Marlow is the sort of seaman who is â€Å"trustworthiness personified† (5).   But he is â€Å"not typical† (8) in that â€Å"to him the meaning of an episode was not inside like a kernel but outside, enveloping the tale† (8), which perhaps prepares us for Marlow’s attempt to convey to us the scale of his experience and its importance.   The maritime traditions and habits of mind are central to Marlow.   He values work over fantasy.   At the jungle station â€Å"I went to work†¦ In that way only it seemed to me I could keep my hold on the redeeming facts of life† (33), which is a vital and mature desire in him.   His instincts are to reject nonsense and absurdity and stick to the real.Talking to the ridiculous agent at the station, â€Å"this papier-mà ¢chà © Mephistopheles† (37), he tells us of his horror of lies, not because he is particularly virtuous, but because â€Å"there is a taint of death, a flavour of mortality in lies – which is exactly what I hate and detest in the world† (38-9).   The agent’s insinuating invitation to Marlow to accept his petty corruptions meets with an instinctive shudder that speaks for his integrity.   Every man wants to get on, says the agent. â€Å"What more did I want? What I really wanted was rivets, by heaven!   Rivets.   To get on with the work† (40).   There is something wonderfully refreshing about such healthy disgust, and this contributes largely to our readiness to listen to Marlow as the tale reaches its most critical stages.It was a relief, he says to get back to the work of repairing the steamboat, not because he actually likes labor, â€Å"but I like what is in the work, – the chance to find yourself.   Your own reality†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (41). A powerful moment for him is the discovery in the riverside hut of Towson’s manual on seamanship, which, in the middle of the chaotic world of the jungle, gives him â€Å"a delicious sensation of having come upon something unmistakably real† (54), for the real is what he longs for, as the guarantee of sanity and purpose.   It reassures him that the book has been studied and cared for, the spine â€Å"lovingly stitched afresh with white cotton thread† (54) and the margin annotated with what he thinks is cipher but later discovers to be Russian.If Marlow’s integrity and devotion to the real is created thoroughly, so are his attitudes to wh at he experiences before he meets Kurtz.   Conrad gives him a style that is consistent.   He is skeptical, a little sardonic, and down-to earth.   He tells how he worked on his relations to try to ensure that he could go to Africa:The men said â€Å"My dear Fellow,† and did nothing.   Then – would you believe it? – I tried the women.   I, Charlie Marlow, set the women to work – to get a job.   Heavens!   Well, you see, the notion drove me.   I had an aunt, a dear enthusiastic soul.   She wrote: â€Å"It will be delightful†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (12)The voice is familiar, humorous and unaffected, and we feel every reason to trust what he says.   His devotion to the real makes him immediately sensitive to dishonesty and cant.   His view of â€Å"progress† is justifiably jaundiced.   The captain whom he replaces has been killed; â€Å"I heard the original quarrel arose from a misunderstanding about some hens† (13), and he is sur e that afterwards â€Å"the cause of progress got them, anyhow† (14).   His charge is â€Å"a two-penny-half-penny river steamboat with a penny whistle attached† (18) and he feels that his aunt talks â€Å"rot† when she describes him as â€Å"an emissary of light† (18).   He records the bizarre sight of a French warship lobbing shells into the jungle to destroy â€Å"enemies† (20).He is bewildered by the sight of the accountant at the station in his â€Å"high starched collar, white cuffs, a light alpaca jacket, snowy trousers†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (25) working alongside the black workmen who are dying in the grass.   He encounters a white man who has the job of maintaining the road.   He is drunk, and â€Å"Can’t say I saw any road or any upkeep, unless the body of a middle-aged negro, with a bullet-hole in the forehead, upon which I absolutely stumbled three miles further on, may be considered a permanent improvement† (29).   The man who tries to put out the fire in the store shed carries a bucket and declares â€Å"that everybody was ‘behaving splendidly, splendidly,’ dipped about a quart of water and tore back again.   I noticed there was a hole in the bottom of his pail† (33).Everywhere Marlow’s shrewd and ironical intelligence spots the signs of decay, corruption and self-deception.   The whole establishment at the jungle trading station is â€Å"unreal† (35), and when the manager starts canting about Marlow being â€Å"of the new gang – the gang of virtue† (36) â€Å"I nearly burst into a laugh† (36).   The whole experience has for him the insane logic of dream, â€Å"that commingling of absurdity, surprise, and bewilderment in a tremor of struggling revolt, that notion of being captured by the incredible which is the very essence of dreams†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (39).Such judgments and descriptions strike the reader as immensely observant and yet mo destly expressed.   Marlow feels fundamental decencies being abused by the colonial trading world, and it is hardly surprising that he becomes increasingly interested in Kurtz, who is clearly feared as well as despised by the other agents, largely because he has some sort of vision, a commodity seriously lacking in the ivory trading world.   Marlow’s convincing honesty and down-to-earth qualities even make Conrad’s symbolism easy to approach.The Fate-like knitting women in the Brussels office are entirely real as well as allusive.   One wears a dress â€Å"as plain as an umbrella cover† (14).   Marlow notes how the two women introduce many â€Å"to the unknown†¦ these two, guarding the door of Darkness, knitting black wool as for a warm pall† (16).   It is a rare and powerful effect, not clumsy, as it might have been, because we are so convinced by Marlow’s practical and realistic attitude.When it comes to the encounter with Kurtz we are therefore ready to give Marlow the benefit of the doubt as he reveals his own complex attitude to the man, and tries to explain what it is that Kurtz has seen and felt.   It is Kurtz’s idealism that first interests him, here in this nightmare place of unreason.   The other agents laugh at his hope that â€Å"Each station should be like a beacon on the road towards better things, a centre for trade of course, but also for humanising† (47).   At the same time Marlow cannot escape the thought that the savage figures seen on the bank are not inhuman, â€Å"the thought of your remote kinship with this wild and passionate uproar† (51) and we can see how he might understand how Kurtz’s own soul has been captured by the darkness.He finds that he wants to talk to Kurtz, even though he realizes as soon as he gets to Kurtz’s station that â€Å"He had taken a high seat among the devils of the land† (70), something Marlow knows will be almost impossible for his audience to understand; â€Å"How could you? – with solid pavement under your feet, surrounded by kind neighbours†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (70).   This is where Marlow’s story moves into the area of the incredible and the only partly expressible   Kurtz’s high-minded writings end suddenly with the savage cry â€Å"Exterminate all the brutes† (72).   The â€Å"brother seaman† talks of how Kurtz has inspired him – â€Å"I tell you†¦this man has enlarged my mind† (78).   But Marlow can only conclude â€Å"Why! He’s mad† (81) despite the Russian’s protests.The skulls are the evidence of his total breakdown, that the darkness â€Å"had whispered to him things about himself that he did no know† (83). The spell of the wilderness had awakened â€Å"forgotten and brutal instincts† (94) in him and dragged his soul â€Å"beyond the bounds of permitted aspirations† (95).   Marlow i s able to see Kurtz’s story as a tragedy.   His aim had been to â€Å"Live rightly, die, die† (99) but he had not known what was in himself, and Marlow’s readiness to stand by him at the end, even to rescue him in a way, rests on an awareness that Kurtz was not despicable, and that he himself might well respond in the same way.â€Å"He had made that last stride, he had stepped over the edge, while I had been permitted to draw back my hesitating foot† (101).   Back in Europe, like Gulliver, he is disgusted by his fellow man, â€Å"like the outrageous flauntings of folly in the face of a danger† (102), and he lies to Kurtz’s â€Å"intended† because neither she nor anyone else would be able to comprehend the truth.Marlow does not claim to know or understand everything.   It is the unassuming nature of his narrative stance that convinces us.   The â€Å"real† narrator calls the whole thing â€Å"one of Marlow’s inco nclusive experiences† (10). But no one could be omniscient with such a subject; Marlow only glimpses one of the great mysteries, and none of us is ever granted more than that.   What Conrad has done is to choose a narrative method and a type of narrator which conveys as well as possible immensely difficult things.Works CitedConrad, Joseph.   Heart of Darkness.   Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1973.

Book review Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

Book review - Essay Example The exercise on amplifying exceptions and complementing is very educative and practical; hence it can be used to cynosure on solution focused brief therapy. The parties taking part in the exercise are able to experience first hand the intended purpose. The second technique is asking the miracle question, where this technique is to help the client know what he/she wants done differently in that the first attempts chosen to solve a problem did not work out; therefore, another approach is needed. The last technique is to understand the structural component of feedback to clients using role play and interchanging of characters helps in the formulation and delivery of feedback to clients. Corey (2008) specifically talks about how personal experiences can influence change of behavior in their day to day life, a bad experience can trigger phobia. Therefore, due to the phobia triggered the victim tends to avoid situations where the phobia triggering stimuli

Economics Coursework Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Economics - Coursework Example ‘Much of the competition between these oligopolistic firms is usually in terms of marketing of their particular brand’ (Sloman, pp. 197-198 2008), although the marketing techniques may differ considerably from one industry to another. There is a huge deal of interdependence between firms in an oligopoly. The abstract tells us that they have power in many ways in terms of regulating prices and agreements. The decisions made by the rivals will affect each firm. Firms, hence affecting their decisions recognize this interdependence (Sloman, pp. 197-198 2008). 2) Explain two reasons for your answer in question 1? It is an understanding that the type of the market structure is oligopolistic because of the fact that a few numbers of firms have a larger share of the market. In addition, when there are collusions as in the above case, so it shows that the type of market structure is oligopolistic. In addition, all the six companies mentioned do not always compete aggressively (Bi anco, 2011). It has been an observation that the companies have merged/collusion, which is done only in cases of an oligopoly where there are a few number of firms and they have a considerable, share in the market. It shows that ‘the policies of each company greatly influence those of the other firms, because of the few sellers present’ (World Book, Inc, pp. 735, 2007). 3) What are the 6 Firm concentration ratios for the global pesticide industry? The global pesticide industry (Swanson, pp. 52-59, 2002) is expected to have a larger ratio in the market because there are these 6 large firms only which have an edge over the market. It is expected that they will have a monopoly due the collusions that have taken place. This will result in an extensive market share (Leiberman, pp. 23-25, 2007). 4) What is meant by a cartel? Cartel is a form of collusion. There are other type of collusions like the horizontal and the vertical collusion, and the joint product development (Worl d Book, Inc, pp. 251, 2007). It is an association that is formed by various producers of a particular industry to control the market for their product. By restricting the available supply, the selling price is usually raised in a cartel. Usually, a cartel consists of privately owned companies in one country or another. Some governments may also form a cartel. In order to succeed, a cartel should be having a few members. However, the cartel must include all or most of the producers in a country to have monopoly in the product. It is necessary for the product to have less substitutes and it is favorable of the product is scarce (World Book, Inc, pp. 240-242, 2007). Like the case of chemical industry in an agriculture market. In a cartel, the selling price of a product is usually set at a higher price. In order to obtain this higher price, the cartel limits the output that is expected of each member, hence assigning each member a share of the market. There is a high probability for the cartel to fail if a large number of members cheat on these arrangements (World Book, Inc, pp. 252, 2007). 5) Give two features of the collusions by the companies There are explicit collusions and tacit collusions. In explicit collusion, it is the easiest way for firms to ensure that all the profit maximizing output will be in maintenance. Such

Learning activities Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Learning activities - Essay Example The Americans public displays of affection are seen as liberated and rude in front of elders of Asian countries like the Philippines. It is in this way that false assumptions are made of cultural differences. While racism seeks to rationally and consciously oust different ethnicities, ethnocentrism is created by enculturation (Patterson 2005). A great disparity occurs because of the presence of ethnocentrism in the minds of individuals. With it comes improper deliverance of health care facilities to members of different races and ethnicities. Health workers, community members and policies are all affected by ethnocentrism which prevents individuals from getting the full benefits of a health care program. Despite all of this, there have been universal standards of right and wrong that are introduced and prevalent in the world today. The ideas of a superior white race during America's colonial times have been replaced with equal systems being created for whites and blacks alike. Thus, with time come change and a greater acceptance of different cultures. 2. There are certain health care jobs that each federal and state government is responsible for providing to the citizens of their country. This includes basic ideas like protecting the health and safety of every individual. The physical and mental health of each citizen has to be recognized and acknowledged through providence of proper food and nutrition along with controlling of diseases and providing for the elderly. But it also includes the measures that must be taken to protect the health of citizens during disasters. This includes providing and realizing the basic health care needs of each individual in a disaster hit area and providing relief medicine and goods accordingly. 3. Don't know 4. Don't know 5. Medicare refers to a social insurance program that is set up by the United States government to provide for the coverage of health insurance to any citizen over the age of sixty five or those who meet the special criteria (Medicare Rights Centre). Operating under a single fund, the doctors and expenses of this insurance program are all funded by the government itself. 6. Medicare is a perfect example of a health policy provided for by a single payer: in this case the government. Thus, living up to the ideals of social liberalism, Medicare provides equally for the patients who fit the required needs. 7. The presence of health care provided according to income is ample proof of an economic liberalism that exists in the United States Module 5 Allied health professionals provide a varied and diverse number of services. The education sought by each of these doctors, the degree of autonomy they have been allowed by the medical establishment that employs them and the regulations that have been set out to control their practices are all varied and different from professional to professional. However, there are a number of similarities between them. Emerging from the same history and evolutionary path, the creation of the autonomy is distinctly similar. Cost effective strategies have forced tremendous

The Negative of Internet on Education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

The Negative of Internet on Education - Essay Example Students approach internet facility to resolve their queries, but are liable to be trapped in fallacies due to lack of understanding and knowledge. Research studies reveal that children seek internet as an aid to please their curiosity about all those ambiguous materials which are otherwise forbidden for their age, this exposure could be intentional or accidental, either by means of e-mail spam or through pop-up windows that may contain perilous stuff for them. Elders guidance is desired to keep a check on the use of internet by their ward(s) to prevent them from hoodwinks of internet, from acquiring erroneous conceptual understanding, and to protect their wards from online exploitation. Internet information inundation not only engrosses an individual but also sidetracks from the normal course and conscience, thereby squander valuable time which otherwise could be utilized in creative activities to attain knowledge and building appropriate concepts. Internet is therefore considered as a burden on the education as it inculcates pseudo-trust "everything is available on internet" and students pay less attention in their

Self Assessment Personal Statement Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Self Assessment - Personal Statement Example The most important strength that is given by this test to me is introvert, sensing, thinking and judgement. Whereas, the other are the weakness and are usually belongs to the one who are shy and have weak judgement senses. I got ENTJ result in which I agree with N but do not agree with E. the thing is that introvert are usually the more sensible persons as they use to think more and extrovert speaks what they feel. The one who is more bold use to speak what they feel but have less time to think but introvert are the one who use to think more and has more powerful judgement. Moreover, the sensing is the most important factor in self assessment as the sensing only provides results with solid reasons. For example according to strong sense it is clear that the people join the profession according to their type and field and this is practically true also where as the intuitive way do not provide such solid reasons. According to my results and self assessment this ENTJ support my results as this is on more solid reasons and provide the true examples in daily life. The thinking is better than feeling.

Introduce the telescope Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Introduce the telescope - Essay Example The computerized object locator is thus gives the IntelliScope Dobsonian telescope a ‘brain.’ This object locator is equipped with an LCD display screen that shows information about the object selected, including the type of the object, common name and magnitude. The computerized object locator works by first plugging it into the base of the IntelliScope Dobsonian telescope (computerized controller port). The object locator is then powered on and the telescope is pointed vertically. The user will align the IntelliScope on two different stars. Once the IntelliScope is aligned, the user selects an object to be viewed from the menu buttons. These menu buttons allow for the selection of the objects based on type or catalog number. Once the desired object has been identified, the user presses the Enter button on the locator. The LCD screen of the object locator will display arrow-based directions that help the user to adjust or train the telescope to the selected object. Once the telescope has been trained to the desired object, the object becomes available for magnified observation. This is a good telescope I can recommend to anyone. First, the computerized object locator has a big database that allows the user to choose from a wide range of objects to view. Secondly, by using this telescope, the process of locating and observing these objects is easy because of the computerized object locator. Therefore, the telescope can be used even by those people who are new to telescopes. Finally, since the telescope allows for faster viewing of objects, a user can view many objects in a given

Socrates Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Socrates - Term Paper Example Therefore, he decided to take up his punishment and not attempt to escape. One argument that Socrates used in accepting his punishment was his contention that Athenian laws had a parental authority over the inhabitants of Athens. Sans these laws, Socrates as a man would not have been who he was and would not even have been born. "In the first place did we not bring you into existence? Your father married your mother by our aid and begot you" (Plato 53). It is through these laws that he was raised and trained for Greek life. Socrates claims that these laws, which possess the charges educations, were right to command their fathers to train their sons in gymnastics and music. He continues his argument by establishing that Athenian laws have a parental authority over Athenian citizens. Socrates claims, â€Å"since you were brought into the world and nurtured and educated by us, can you deny that you are a slave and child as your fathers were?† (Plato 53). Crito poses an ethical di lemma in one of his arguments that sought to convince Socrates to escape. He contends that if he stays, he will be helping his persecutors in unjustly harming hi, which would make his staying an unjust one. In addition, he was also abandoning his children to a fatherless future (Plato 51). Socrates argues against this by explaining to Crito the Athenian law and the way he viewed it as one entity. He contended that breaking of one of these laws amounted to breaking all laws; he explains that Athenian citizens are bound to law just as a child is bound to his father. He poses an almost metaphysical sort of social contract that, instead of breaking the law and escaping, he should argue his case rationally and hope he would be treated justly before the court. Socrates contends that he had been found guilty and was to be put to death. It was essential to see it as right and just because he had seen what the law had done until that point and it had been right and just. It was his belief th at if he broke the law, it would be unjust, and he would have failed in his duty. Socrates identity as an Athenian defined his personality, and he would never be welcomed in any other civilized society if he broke Athenian law. It was Socrates belief that if he should break the law of Athens, then the underworld would judge him harshly, losing his soul. This dialogue with Crito comes across like an ancient and Athenian propaganda for the city-state of Athens. Socrates assumes the position that he is the custodian of the law and the city of Athens. Socrates claims that he is not on talks that are equal footing with Athenian law, and he does not have the right to work against it through saving his own life and running away. In this dialogue, Socrates claims, â€Å"Is your wisdom such as not to realize that your country is to be honored more than your mother, your father, and all your ancestors, which it is more to be revered and sacred. It counts for more among the gods and sensible men that you must worship it, yield to it, and placate its anger more than your father’s?† (Plato 54). Therefore, practically, the argument put across by Socrates is that Athens is a sacred city that citizens must always obey and that the citizens must never leave it. In his dialogue with Crito, Crito attempts to convince him to go into exile, which Socrates refuses. He contends that he is too old and is not resentful of death, believing that he has no right to

The Great Search for Oil Sources Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

The Great Search for Oil Sources - Essay Example There are also those who, on the other hand, feel that the end result from drilling in the area would be so minuscule in nature, that is would prove to not have any kind of benefit, while in the process having a drastic effect on the ecosystem of the refuge itself. The online Encyclopedia Wikipedia provides a little history on the subject of drilling in the Arctic. It writes that, "The question of whether or not to allow drilling for oil in the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (ANWR) has been a political football for every sitting American president since Jimmy Carter. The Arctic National Wildlife Refuge is just east of Prudhoe Bay in Alaska's "North Slope," which is North America's largest oil field. Currently, the Prudhoe bay area accounts for 17% of U.S. domestic oil production.[1] In 1987 and again in 1998 studies released by the U.S. Geological Survey have estimated significant deposits of crude oil exist within the land designated as the "1002 area" of ANWR, as well.[2][3][3] ," ("Arctic" p.1). A noticeable action came when, "In 2005, Congress twice affirmed their constituents' belief that America's remaining wilds are important and rejection of claims that Arctic Refuge oil is any sort of answer to the nation's dependence on foreign oil. In November 2005, leaders of the House removed provisions that would have allowed drilling in the refuge from a massive budget bill.

Universities in Middle Ages Essay Example for Free

Universities in Middle Ages Essay 1. 1 Origin of the University The main reason for the establishment of the universities in Europe was a spontaneous and enthusiastic desire for knowledge. Centres of learning had grown up from the monastic and cathedral schools formed what might be called the secondary school system of the early Middle Ages and were mostly concerned with the study of the liturgy and prayer. Towards the end of the twelfth century a few of the greatest old cathedral, monastic or some other form of schools claimed, from the excellence of their teaching, to be more than merely local importance. These schools were generally recognized places of study, where lectures were open to student of all countries and of all conditions. However, for these places of study, it took a long period of time to become universities (Cubberley, 1920). The more ancient and customary term for an academic institution was studium generale. Let us explain the way studium was created in those days. It began when the teacher of some ability and reputation attracted more and more students to study. In period of time more teachers and more students came. The addition of generale meant that the studium was attended by students from other countries and it was contrasted with a studium particulare, which taught students only from the neighbourhood. In the thirteenth century, according to famous historian, Hastings Rashdall, three characteristics were connoted by the term Studium Generale; a school which aspired to the name must not be restricted to natives of a particular town or country, it must have a number of masters, and it must teach not only the Seven Liberal Arts, but also one or more of the higher studies of Theology, Law and Medicine (1969, p9). It was used in much the same sense in which we speak of a University to-day (Graves, 1914) The term universitas itself was a general Roman legal term and originally meant any legally defined guild or corporation unless qualified by other expression. The complete name of the medieval university was – Universitas Magistrorum et Scholarium – the body of masters and scholars. Graves suggests that â€Å"it signified a company of persons that had assembled for study and, like any other gild, had organized for the sake of protection; since they were in a town there they were regarded as strangers. Thus it did not refer to a place or school at all, but to the teachers and scholars† (1914, p87). Lyte affirms that â€Å"in the earliest and broadest sense of the term, a university had no necessary connexion with schools or literature, being merely a community of individuals bound together by some more or less acknowledged tie. The term was, however, specially applied to the whole body of persons frequenting the schools of a large stadium† (1886, p5). According to Mullinger there are at least â€Å"three new factors in the intellectual activity of the older universities which clearly distinguish that activity from anything that had gone before. Firstly, there is the introduction of new subjects of study, as embodied in a new or revived literature. Secondly it is the adaption of new methods of teaching, which these subjects rendered necessary. And finally there is the growing tendency to organisation which accompanied the development and consolidation of the nationalities† (1888, p4). Rashdall also concluded that the university had embodied three important educational values: â€Å"a commitment to providing not only useful professional training but also the highest intellectual cultivation possible; a desire not only to conserve and transmit knowledge but also to advance it by research and writing; and the most important of all, the idea of joining together teachers of diverse subjects into a single harmonious institution, the ideal of making the teaching body representative of the whole cycle of human knowledge† (1969a, p12). Practically in the second half of the twelfth century there were only few great centres where the highest education was attainable. The two great archetypal universities were those of Bologna and Paris. There was a great difference between them. The University of Bologna was considered to be the University of Students. It means that the students had entire charge of the government of the university. They hired and paid for the teachers. The University of Paris was regarded as the University of Masters, where the government was in the hands of the teachers and was paid by the church. These two types served as a pattern for nearly all the universities in Europe. The majority of the universities of northern Europe followed the system of Paris. On the other side the system of Bologna was the prototype of the southern universities. The other universities we focus on are the University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge. For their formation the University of Paris served as an example. However, they were not supported by the church but by the crown and the state (Rait, 1912). 1. 2 Privileges granted to universities From the time of the early universities popes, emperors and kings bestowed a large variety of exemptions, immunities and other special privileges on the masters and students of the universities. Basis for many special privileges granted to the professors and students in the early universities was formed by the grant of privileges to physicians and teachers made by the Emperor Constantine, in 333 A. D. and the privileges and immunities granted to the clergy by the early Christian Roman Emperors. In 1158, Frederic I. Barbarossa began the granting a privilege to the Studia Generalia in the document known as the Habita (the first word in the charter) in which he placed the students under his direct protection and declared them subject to the jurisdiction of their masters or of the bishop of Bologna. This grant was for the benefit of students of Bologna who were not natives of the city and were exposed to many dangers and disadvantages. It occurred that in case of any dispute between the students and a citizen of the town, the citizen had the advantage in the local court. Also the students were often robbed while travelling. So this emperor issued the following edict: â€Å"to all scholars who travelled for the sake of study and especially to the professors of divine and sacred laws They may go in safety,† he said, â€Å"to the places in which the studies are carried on, both they themselves and their messengers and may dwell there in security In the future no one shall be so rash as to venture to inflict any injury on scholars of to occasion any loss to them on account of a debt owed by an inhabitant of their province. If anyone shall presume to bring a suit against them on account of any business, the choice in this matter shall be given to the scholars, who may summon the accusers to appear before their professors or the bishop of the city, to whom we have given jurisdiction in this matter† (Graves, 1914, p82). During the period of time this privilege was also given for other universities by monarchs. A similar edict gave Philip Augustus to the students of Paris in 1200. A reason for conceding this privilege was a fight between the students and the king? s troops. The students were defeated and some of them even killed. Philip Augustus was afraid that the students would leave the school and it would be closed. He blamed his own official for the fight and gave the students full protection and immunity. It contained the obligation of every citizen of Paris to seize any one seen striking a student and deliver him to the judge. He also relieved students from trial by the city authorities unless the serious crime had been committed; in that case all judges were commanded to hand over the cases of the student criminals to the ecclesiastical judge (Munro, 1888). In 1231 Pope Gregory IX published a statute that was looked upon as the Magna Charta of the University of Paris. The members of the university were granted the right of making â€Å"constitutions and ordinances regulating the manner and time of lectures and disputations, the costume to be worn, the burial of the dead; and also concerning the bachelors, who are to lecture and at what hours, and on what they are to lecture; and concerning the prices of the lodgings or the interdiction of the same; and concerning a fit punishment for those who violate your constitutions or ordinances, by exclusion from your society† (Munro, 1921, p367). The universities had also certain recognized privileges that were specially granted by the civil or ecclesiastical authorities. Such was the jus ubique docendi, which meant that a master in one Studium Generale had the right of teaching in any other without further examination (Graves, 1914). Moreover the masters and the students had the right of cessation, the privilege of suspending lectures and go on a strike when university rights were violated. This right was frequently used to defend the university from the infringement of its freedom to teach, study, and discipline. This was closely connected with the right of migration. In the case that the members of the university were not satisfied they could leave the city and go to another town. Since the universities had no buildings and the lectures were held in the hired rooms, it was easy for them to move almost overnight. This grant caused the rise of many new universities. Sometimes it happened that a special invitation was issued to a university exercising the cessation to come to another city or even country. It was the case of the University of Oxford in 1229. King Henry III. promised the striking masters and scholars of Paris that â€Å"if it shall be your pleasure to transfer yourselves to our kingdom of England and to remain there to study, we will for this purpose assign to you cities, boroughs, towns, whatsoever you may wish to select, and in every fitting way will cause you to rejoice in a state of liberty and in tranquillity† (Graves, 1914, p85). Later Oxford, in turn, was to suffer from a similar migration. These privileges were generally held by all the universities through which the universities obtained a great power. They were free of the threat of royal or civic interference. An advantage of being self-governing corporations was that the universities were responsible for their own disciplinary arrangements and rarely had to deal with outside authorities. The liberty allowed to students resulted in recklessness, immorality, license, quarrels, dishonesty and care freeness. The students seemed to have become dissipated and quarrelsome. There were many conflicts with townspeople and even among themselves. 1. 3 Organization of universities. The students for a long time naturally grouped themselves according to the part of world and to the nation from which they came. These societies or confederations were generally known as â€Å"nations†. They came together for better protection and society. Every year each nation elected a chief, who was called the consiliarius (â€Å"councillor†). He represented the nation, looked after its interests and the rights and controlled the conduct of its members. There were constant quarrels between the different nations. A contemporary writer Jacobus de Vitriaco, has left us an account of student life at Paris, in which he says: â€Å"The students at Paris wrangled and disputed not merely about the various sects or about some discussions; but the differences between the countries also caused dissensions, hatreds and virulent animosities among them, and they impudently uttered all kinds of affronts and insults against one another†(Cubberley, 1920, p73). In each studium generale there were a larger or smaller number of â€Å"nations†. At Paris were four nations:†the honourable nation of the Gauls, the venerable nation of the Normans, the very faithful nation of the Picards, the very constant nation of the English†. Each was subdivided into provinces, and in a â€Å"province† might be included men from many lands. (Munro, 1921) According to F. P. Graves, â€Å"by the early part of the thirteenth century the students of Bologna had merged their organizations into two bodies – the universitas citramontanorum (â€Å"Cisalpine corporation†), composed of seventeen nations, and the universitas ultramontanorum (â€Å"Transalpine corporation†), made up of eighteen; but not for some three centuries were these two united† (1914, p87). In turn, the teachers themselves were combined together into â€Å"faculties†, that is to say, as associates in one and the same branch of learning and instruction. As H. C. M. Lyte states in his work that â€Å"the term faculty, which originally signified the capacity to teach a particular subject, came to be applied technically to the subject itself, or to the authorised teachers of it viewed collectively. Thus there might be separate Faculties of Theology, Law, Medicine, and the liberal Arts, coexistent within one university, although every university did not necessarily comprise all these Faculties† (1886, p7). Teachers and students were members of these faculties, and consequently also of the university. The importance of the faculties was different in various universities. A good example is the University of Bologna. Its Faculty of Law was the most prominent, the Faculty of the Medicine was established in 1316 and the Faculty of Theology was added in the year 1362. So it was with many of the early universities. All of four traditional faculties were found by the fourteenth century. Each faculty came to elect a decanus (â€Å"dean†) as its representative in the university organization. The deans, together with the councillors of the nations elected a rector, who was the head or president of the university. In a university of masters, he was generally chosen from the masters and in a university of students, he was usually a student (Graves, 1914). A long struggle aroused between the rector and the chancellor who was usually appointed by the Pope and represented the Church, to be the chief authority in the university. Ultimately the rector became the chief authority and the position of chancellor had no real importance. 1. 3. 1 The Faculty of Arts At Paris, Oxford, and Cambridge the arts faculties were the most dominant and were preparatory to the other three faculties. There is no evidence of any formal requirement for entry into an arts faculty, but it was necessary to have elementary proficiency in Latin, however the lectures were given in this language. The prescribed length of the course was six years with a minimum age of fourteen or fifteen for admission. According to Robert of Courson? s statutes of 1215 the minimum age for graduation as a master was fixed at twenty years. The basis of the medieval curriculum in Arts is to be found in the Seven Liberal Arts of the Dark Ages. The term liberal, derived from the Latin liberalis, has its roots in the word meaning â€Å"free†. It can implicate that a liberal arts education â€Å"frees† individuals from the chaos of irrationality. In the medieval period, the liberal arts were divided into the Trivium, which was consisted of Grammar, Rhetoric and Dialectic, and the Quadrivium, which included Arithmetic, Astronomy, Geometry and Music. These â€Å"Seven Liberal Arts† were thought suitable for the development of intellectual and moral excellence (North, 1992). Grammar always had a central place in the curriculum, but it did not mean how sentences are constructed or the analyses of parts of speech. It was the foundation and source of all the Liberal Arts. In the introduction to an improved Latin grammar, published about 1119, grammar is defined as â€Å"The doorkeeper of all the other sciences, the apt expurgatrix of the stammering tongue, the servant of logic, the mistress of rhetoric, the interpreter of theology, the relief of medicine, and the praiseworthy foundation of the whole quadrivium. † Grammar also included the study of poetry and poetic structure. It was also used for the analysis of secular writings, scriptures and biblical commentaries (Leff, 1992). By the definition, Rhetoric is the art of persuasion. Defined by Maurus, it was â€Å"the art of using secular discourse effectively in the circumstances of daily life. † Students learned about the techniques of oral expression and strategies of debate. It also enables the preacher or missionary to put the divine message in eloquent and impressive language. Dialectics, or logic, was the study of the use of logic in debates. By means of its aid a student was enabled to formulate argument, expose error, unmask falsehood, and draw conclusions accurately. It also includes the theory that argument and debate are part of the learning process. Its popularity was greatly enhanced by the acquisition of writings of Aristotle (Leff, 1992). The Quadrivium had relatively little importance and received small attention during the medieval period. The chief purpose of the astronomy was to explain the seasons and the motions of the planets. The study of this field enables the priests â€Å"to fix the time of Easter and all other festivals and holy days, and to announce to the congregation the proper celebration of them† For telling the time and for surveying purposes were used instruments which included a map of stars, the astrolabe and the quadrant. Other field of Quadrivium was also used for determining church days and calculating the date of Easter – Arithmetic. Moreover it involved the study of theories underlying the study of numbers and interpreting passages in the Scriptures involving measurements. It has to be remarked that the Roman system of notation was used and the Arabic notation was not known until the beginning of the thirteenth century (North, 1992). Geometry, the science of measurements, was used primarily as a means of calculating and measuring. Its focus was on the relational values between objects and determining ratios. It involved the geography of Europe, Asia and Africa, too. Music was based on the same principle as Arithmetic. While Arithmetic concerned the numerical manifestation of universal ratios, music was considered to be the expression of numerical relationships using sounds. According to Michael Masi, harmony in Music was â€Å"the ratio and proportion expressed in musical terms. † The primary focus of scholars was to become familiar with the mathematical nature of music. John North cited Brunetto Latini who said that â€Å"music was the second mathematical science, which serves for our delight and for the service of the Lord† (North, 1992, p343). The study of music was also important in religious practises The education of Seven Liberal Arts prepared students for careers in the church, education, business and law. It came to be the standard for a university education for next centuries. 1. 3. 2 The Faculty of Theology This faculty was the most important of the four and it prepared students for the service of the Church. The book which received far greater attention than the Scriptures and the students put most of their time upon was Peter Lombard? s Book of Sentences. The neglect of the Scriptures for the scholastic theology was characteristic for this period of time. Graves in his work A History of education during the Middle Ages and the transition to modern times quotes Roger Bacon: â€Å"Although the principal study of the theologian ought to be in the text of Scriptures, in the last fifty-years theologians have been principally occupied with questions in tractates and Summ? , horse-loads composed by many, and not at all with the most holy text of God. And accordingly, theologians give a readier reception to a treatise of scholastic questions than they do to one about the text of Scripture† (1914, p90). The course usually lasted for eight years and some centuries later it was extended to fourteen years. According to C. Munro, â€Å"while theology is commonly spoken of as the â€Å"queen of the sciences† and the seven liberal arts are termed its handmaidens, the faculties of the theology did not enrol a very large number of students in the thirteenth century† (1921, p372). 1. 3. 3 The Faculty of Law The course generally contained civil and canon law. The authorized text for civil law was Justinian? s Corpus Iuris Civilis which included compilation of imperial edicts, the Digest of opinions of Roman jurists, and an introductory text for students. For the study of canon law it was Gratian? s Decretum which included ecclesiastical offices, the administration of canon law, and the ritual and sacraments. As Munro says, â€Å"many students in the law faculty, however, did not aspire to proficiency in the laws themselves, but were content with the more humble but lucrative study of the ars dictaminis, or ars notaria. and the ars dictaminis may be styled the complete art of letter writing. Hence knowledge of this art was especially useful in law matters and came to be known as the ars notaria† (1921, p373). Bologna was the acknowledged centre of instruction in both the civil and canon law. 1. 3. 4 The Faculty of Medicine The Medical Faculty taught the knowledge of the medical arts which included the Greek and Arabic text-books, especially the treatises by Hippocrates and Galen. There was no dissection of the human body practised till the thirteenth century; therefore the only way to study human anatomy was from text-books or from the study of the anatomy of animals. â€Å"The year 1300 is almost exactly the date for which we have the first definite evidence of the making of Human dissections, and the gradual development of anatomical investigation by this means in connection with the Italian universities† (Munro, 1921, p374). 1. 4 Degrees The system of degrees was common to all universities during the thirteenth century. There were three grades of degrees – Bachelor, Master and Doctor. After the three year? s course of trivium at the Faculty of Arts had been completed, the student entered upon quadrivium, and became a â€Å"commencing† bachelor or a â€Å"determiner†. According to Mullinger the â€Å"determiner was called upon to preside at certain disputations in the schools, and to sum up, or determine, the logical value of the arguments adduced by respondent or opponent. † (1888, p25). This meant nothing more than the student? s apprenticeship to a master but it was his admission to a degree of Bachelor of Arts (Verger, 1992). Performing the act of determining – to be tested in public disputations – made him a bachelor of arts. To be tested in public disputations meant that â€Å"a student was permitted to present himself for a test as to his ability to define words, determine the meaning of phrases, and read the ordinary Latin texts in Grammar, Rhetoric, and Logic (the Trivium), to the satisfaction of other masters than his own† (Rashdall, 1969a, p28). According to D. R. Leader a bachelor of arts was â€Å"in effect a journeyman master who partially shared in the masters? privileges of lecturing and presiding at disputations† (1994, p22). This term as H. C. M. Lyte states, â€Å"was used in a technical sense at all the medieval universities, to denote a student who had ceased to be a pupil, but had not yet become a teacher† (1886, p7). The Bachelor was a student-teacher who was seeking to obtain a license to teach in his own right. At the end of quadrivium the bachelor was formally discharged from the state of apprenticeship and he could entreat the chancellor for the degree of master. If the masters of his faculty decided that he was a suitable candidate for the magisterium both by his learning and character, he was received into the brotherhood of teachers and became an â€Å"inceptor†, the candidate. After he passed the actual, â€Å"rigorous† examination which consisted of a disputation upheld by the candidate over a particular question, he was regarded as â€Å"graduated† but was not qualified to teach in the university. The â€Å"graduated† had to also pass the public examination. It was a ceremony during which he performed his first magistral act, usually a disputation with students, on a theme of his choice. There was no possibility of failing. After all these statutory requirements the â€Å"inceptor† received the degree of master and he was authorised to lecture. However, he was obliged by oath to act for two years as a regent or teacher. This period was known as his â€Å"regency†. This rule guaranteed the supply of teachers for the university (Green, 1969). J. Verger says that â€Å"the general attitude at the end of the Middle Ages was that the title gave its bearer genuine social dignity, giving him access to the world of the privileged, indeed, to that of the nobility† (1992, p145). If the Master of Arts wished to enter upon a further course of study, he had to pass through similar steps of bachelorhood and magisterium in one of the superior faculties as well. The terms â€Å"Master† and â€Å"Doctor† were at first synonymous, but during the fourteenth century the title â€Å"Doctor† began to be used instead of â€Å"Master† for the chief degree in the Faculties of Law and Medicine (Verger, 1992). As F. P. Graves expressed â€Å"the degrees â€Å"master† and â€Å"doctor† seem to have been originally about on a par with each other. .. As soon as a candidate was successful in the one, he immediately proceeded to the other, upon which occasion he received both the license to teach and the doctor? s degree† (1914, p92).

How To Write A Well Done Research Paper English Language Essay

How To Write A Well Done Research Paper English Language Essay Before getting down to a new activity, its always helpful to find out what you are dealing with. Actually, there are several types of writings called a research paper which differ greatly from one another: an academic paper this one is written by professors and scientists, contains results of their own research or some kind of review in the chosen field of knowledge; a thesis (a dissertation) a paper, written by the postgraduate student who has continued scientific work and presents the results of his findings to take an advanced degree; a term paper the one, written by the high school, college, or university students over the term (usually a semester) and handed in somewhere at the end. This paper serves as an evidence of a students ability to apply practically the theoretical knowledge he/she got during the term (or some longer period of studying) and influences greatly the grade. To be more precise, it makes up much of the course thats why its worth being done properly, isnt it? So, you are to write a research paper of this third type. To tell the truth, its quite a consuming activity; I mean, there are several items which will be for sure consumed by your research paper: time: You put off this paper for the last night before the deadline? Youd better spend these ten hours in a more effective way for anyway youll not succeed in writing a proper research paper. Then, what for all the fuss and brouhaha? To be serious, you should be ready to spend several weeks in order to write a good research paper: the two most time-consuming parts are gathering/studying the sources and the writing proper. Be careful to pay equal attention to each part of the process! Carried away by scanning the sources, you may run out of time and lack it for writing your own paper or do it not in the best possible way. In such a case, youll just waste your time when working with sources. And efforts as well, which is discussed below. efforts: I dont want to disappoint you but there is no possibility to write a proper research paper like Slam bang and its done!. It demands much efforts, both physical and mental: the first to search for appropriate sources, take notes, make correctly bibliography cards, finally, to type several pages which youll call research paper; the second to select a topic, to develop a thesis statement, to analyze the information youve collected from the sources, to choose your own point of view, and to present it in a proper way. On the other hand, I dont want to scare you by enumerating all the activities which are to be accomplished. Aimed at the common goal, they come into connection; therefore, if everything is done properly, the process flows smoothly from one stage to another. For instance, when gathering your sources, you are to keep in mind a topic and probably some possible variants of a thesis statement of your research paper when reading and analyzing the sources, you are for sure to concentrate on making notes, bibliography cards and at the same time you are to choose a way to develop your thesis statement when writing different parts of the paper you are to watch the interconnection between them and make sure you present your ideas in a logical order. paper: Joking apart! Be ready to have enough sheets of paper or better even cardboard cards to take notes and collect bibliography information while working with sources. Probably, youll need several editions of your research paper to perfect your argumentation skills and organize it in the best possible way. sources: It was already mentioned above that you should gather quite a number of sources and make a close study of them before writing a research paper. Be attentive, as opposed to an essay where you were supposed to use your personal experience, that of your friends, or some anecdotes in a research paper you are to deal with academic sources, publications of scientists and researchers. Make sure the sources you use are credible enough to refer to them! To sum up all the mentioned above, a well-done research paper is a several-pages long paper accomplished by the end of the term where student presents the results of his/her review of a scientific literature, its analysis, and skills in using it when arguing his/her own point of view. In the long run, you should produce a logical, consistent, and coherent text, based on the independent and critical analysis of some sources and their interpretation aimed at supporting your way of treating the problem. To do it properly, you are to follow seven steps and keep in mind some additional demands. Algorithm of writing a research paper Actually, after youve become familiar with a general idea of a research paper and some of its peculiarities, you are more or less aware of the procedure of its writing. Now lets reorganize these ideas and write them down in a strict concession to get a kind of algorithm: Selecting the topic. Working with sources. Gathering sources. Taking notes. Making bibliography cards. Developing a thesis statement. Outlining the paper. Making the first draft of the paper. Works cited. Making the final draft, technical specification. These are the main steps to follow while writing a research paper; in addition, you should keep in mind some important ideas which are helpful to improve your paper: Tips concerning an effective title. How to write an abstract? What for do we need paraphrasing? What is a summary? Be careful to avoid plagiarism! Now lets take a good look at each of these steps to clarify some particular moments which may help you when applying this guide. Selecting the topic In case you dont have to stick to the topic given by the instructor, you are to choose it yourself. Here are several tips to make a right choice: First of all, think of the subject you are interested in. Preferably, it should be something you are already familiar with, so that you wont spend much time on studying the simplest notions in this sphere, but there should still leave some mystery for you to urge you forward while working with sources and then while writing your own paper. Secondly, think out several (two or three) problems concerning the chosen subject. Make a kind of a preliminary research: look for information available on each of the problems and compare the number of sources. It goes without saying that the more sources you have the better research paper you may write. If you can hardly find academic publications treating the chosen problem, youd better not develop it in your research paper. Finally, be attentive to select a topic complex enough to be researches from a variety of sources and narrow enough to be covered in several pages. You may also think over the working thesis statement which youll take into consideration when gathering and scanning the sources. Still, dont stick to it! Be flexible enough to change the aspect or the angle of the chosen topic; moreover, such transformations may take place on the second stage, while working with sources. Working with sources Gathering Sources The best place to look for credible sources is a library. Here you may consult a librarian to get all the possible books, articles, and other types of publications concerning the problem you are interested in. Make copies of all the materials you find to be useful for your research and dont forget to write down bibliographic information. Otherwise youll have to spend time on looking for these very sources or youll not be able to refer to them in your paper. If you are using online sources, make sure they are serious enough to be referred to in a research paper. Take notice of the website where youve found the information, make sure it contains an author. Here bibliographic information is also needed: web address and the date you accessed it. Taking notes This activity spares your time on rereading and looking hundreds of times through all the materials you have to find some particular idea which seems to be up to the moment just now. What you have to do is to prepare a number of note cards where youll write down the most important information from different sources. If a quotation, it should be copied attentively and enclosed in quotation marks; if some interesting or valuable information, it may be rewritten briefly, in your own words, or taken as an abstract. When dealing with bibliographic information, two options are possible: You may put it on the back side of the note card if there is one card with information from this source. If one source requires several note cards, youd better make separate bibliography cards, enumerate them, and put the number of this source on all the corresponding note cards. Making bibliography cards for a book: authors name, bibliographical title (underlined), publisher, place of publishing, date, Dewey decimal, library; for an article in a magazine: authors name, bibliographical title (in quotes), title of magazine, volume and number, inclusive pages, library; for the online sources: web address, the date you accessed it. Developing a thesis statement Now its high time to turn back to your working thesis statement you were thinking over when choosing a topic and keeping in mind when working with the sources. Doesnt it need any improvements? Two main tasks of the thesis statement are: to define the focus and the direction of you research paper; to sound convincing enough to awake the readers interest in the problem. For instance, possible thesis statement may sound like this: Original influence of Jack Kerouacs novel On the Road upon the formation of the Beat Movement: personal experience, lively description, romanticized adventures. Outlining the paper Outline is a skeleton of your research paper: to make it, you should look carefully through all the notes you have and organize the information in the logical way. If properly done, the outline reflects the structure of the paper; therefore, there remains only to fill it up with more detailed information, such as quotations, examples, illustrations of the main ideas etc. You can use the outline to see how the ideas correspond to each other, how to organize them more effectively, whether each statement is really an independent idea worth being supported by more specified information. When making an outline, you should keep in mind the general structure of the research paper: introduction containing thesis statement, body paragraphs based on the topic sentence, conclusion characterized by the concluding sentence. Each part should be reflected in the outline, indicated by the Roman numerals. Then you place important ideas which make the basis of your research paper: in the majority of cases, these are thesis statement, topic sentences, conclusive sentence. These statements are indicated by capital letters. Finally, you note down some secondary ideas which make part of mentioned above statements and enumerate them with the help of the Arabic numerals. In the long run, youll have a following scheme: Introduction A. B. Topic sentence A. 1. 2. B. 1. 2. Topic sentence A. 1. 2. B. 1. 2. Topic sentence A. B. Conclusion Making the first draft of the paper Now relying on your outline, you can make the first draft of the paper. In fact, it is called the first since there will be the second (and in most cases the final) draft; therefore, here you may pay more attention to content and structure without being too critical against punctuation. When dealing with the first draft, your task is to develop all the ideas which are presented in form of statements and show the whole sequence of thoughts with the help of which you come to your conclusion. Try to be as logical and persuasive as possible. Avoid unfounded statements and conclusions: youve studied a great number of sources to support your ideas. Supply the skeleton with the necessary comments, explanations, and quotations. Develop topic sentences of each body paragraph so that they take the shape of well-organized paragraphs with a proper content. Add internal (inside the paragraphs) and external (between the paragraphs) transitions. Make sure to put references to all the quotations and borrowed ideas. In-text references are done in parenthesis where you indicate last name of the author and the number of the page, like this: (Guterson 91). If the name of the author was mentioned with the citation, you are to put only the number of the page: (91). Rewritten text without references is called plagiarism! Feel free to remove all the unnecessary sentences which dont contribute to your argumentation or repeat what was already said. Excess of words is no better than lack of words. They should be just enough to present the idea and build a strong argumentation, no waffling or chewing over. Here Id like to devote several remarks to the first part of a research paper called INTRODUCTION. The very word points out the task accomplished by this part: introducing the problem treated in the research by briefing the reader on the subject in general, on the objectives of this very paper, and on the ways to gain them. This task may be accomplished in three steps: establishing a territory (you are to share with reader information concerning the recent researches in the chosen field of knowledge, present the subject, and underline its importance). establishing a niche (in the majority of cases, two possibilities are available: either to claim that you follow the tradition in investigating this very aspect or reveal a research gap, lack of researches concerning the chosen problem so that you are going to fill it in by this paper). occupy the niche (this step is devoted to your work: the angle you choose to treat the problem, the methods you are going to apply when analyzing the facts, the way you approach statistical information, the results which follow your research. Brief information about the structure of your research paper will be also up to the point). Dont worry if you find out that you cant cope with this part just after making an outline. Many students have the same problem and actually, its easy to understand: introduction is aimed at presenting the paper which is not written yet. Of course, you have already decided on the subject, the problem of your research, youve formulated the thesis statement, you may have some ideas concerning methodology but still its difficult to foresee all the aspects needed for an introduction. Thats why feel free to put it aside till the whole paper is written.

Biological Activities of Betulin and Betulinic Acid

Biological Activities of Betulin and Betulinic Acid Betulin is the one of the premier pure, crystalline natural product obtained from plants through extraction and sublimation of birch bark (Lowitz 1788). Betulin and betulinic acid are closely related to each other, often found together in varying amount in different plant species when extracted by different solvents . Early anti septic property of betulin and its use become famous to be used in plaster for sterilization of cuts and wound .Studies indicated that betulin carry wound healing, cholesterol lowering activity, hepato-protecteive, anti-bacterial, anti-leishmenial, anti-viral, anti-cancer activities (Wheeler1899). Due to the high mutagenecity of HIV-1 and cancers cells in order to improve the biological activity of betulin and its derivatives various strategies were applied and still going on (Csuk, 2014), here we are presenting a coverage of the betulin, betulinic acid and its derivatives with their biological activity. Study carried on lung injury showed that betulinic acid protects sepsis induced lung injury against inflammation and indicated it as a potential regulator of the inflammation. In another study the positive effect on the acute lung injury cured by betulinic acid. The septic lung injury is generally characterized by the severe oxidative stress response, in addition to available treatment new methods are required to improve further clinical outcomes (Lingaraju et al., 2015). Lingaraju and coworkers found the effect of betulinic acid using cecal ligation and puncture model on oxidative lung injury. They treated two groups of mice with different concentration of betulinic acid, further their lung and plasma samples were collected for analysis by sacrificing the mice at 18hr. of surgery. They concluded increased antioxidants level in blood that lead to reduced lung injury in mice. The role of betulinic acid induces programmed death of human red blood cells (erythroptosis) was reported, whi ch is mediated through membrane permeabilization and calcium ion load (Gao et al.2014). Afzal and his group (Afzal et al. 2014) studied on the hypothyroidism in female albino rate for 2 months by giving them standard drug propyl thio uracil (PTU) for the induction of lower level of TSH for two months. Later on the mice were treated with standard thyroxin at a dose of 10ÃŽ ¼g/kg and the test drug betulinic acid at a dose of 20ÃŽ ¼g/kg of body weight. Finally after the two months study betulinic acid treated animals showed marked improvement in the follicle integrity that showed betulinic acid has protective activity against hypothyroidism. Two groups of semi synthetic derivatives of betulin (BT01 to BT09) and betulinic acid (AB10 to AB16) were synthesized respectively which has shown antileishmanial combined-therapy with miltefosine (Sousa et al.2014). Leishmaniasis was previously treated by miltefosine, amphotericin B, pentavalent antimony compounds, pentamidine etc. but due to thei r toxicity and biological resistance new therapeutics as betulin and betulinic acid derivatives are new avenues for its treatment. Accordingly, it is important to continue the search for new effective and less toxic treatments. Effects on the cell cycle, apoptosis / necrosis events, morphology and DNA integrity with isobologram method were used for a comparative study in between miltefosine with some of the derivative synthesized during the study. The AB13 (28-(1H-imidazole-1-yl)-3,28-dioxo-lup-1,20(29)-dien-2-yl-1H-imidazole-1-carboxylate) and BT06 (3ÃŽ ²-Hydroxy-(20R)-lupan-29-oxo-28-yl-1H-imidazole-1-carboxylate) derivatives were found to be the most active, with IC50 values of 25.8  µM, and 50.8  µM respectively. Synergistic interactions were observed between these two compounds and miltefosine. Significant morphological changes were observed using AB13, while both derivatives (AB13 and BT06) produced anti-proliferative activity through cell cycle arrest at the G0/G1 phase. Neither of these derivatives induced significant apoptosis /necrosis, as indicated by phosphatidylserine externalization and DNA fragmentation assays. Not only that, neither of the derivatives induced death in macrophage cell lines. Thus, they do not present any potential risk of toxicity for the host cells. This study identified the betulin derivative BT06 and the betulinic acid derivative AB13 as promising molecules in the development of new alternative therapies for leishmaniasis, including those involving combined-therapy with miltefosine. The solubility of betulin and its derivatives has been the most significant issue in drug development from these hydrophobic molecules . To overcome this problem nano-emulsion gels of betulinic acid were formulated(Bag and Dash 2011). They tried 20 organic solvents as well aqueous alcohol mixture to synthesize renewable nano-sized 6-6-6-6-5 pentacyclic triterpenic acid . They confirmed their results of increased hydro solubility as they found nano and micrometer length fibers using atomic force microscopy as well electron microscopy. Role of betulinic acid in manipulating the significant actions and role of xenobiotic and antioxidative enzymes in cancer initiation and proliferation were studied (Kaur and Arora 2013) . They studied on the interactio ns of betulinic acid on Sprague Dawley female rats with xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes including cytochrome b5, P420, P450, NADPH cytochrome P450 reductase, and NADH cytochrome b5 reductase (mixed function oxidases ), GST, DT-diaphorase, ÃŽ ³-glutamyl transpeptidase (phase II enzymes), alone as well as in the presence of 7,12 dimethylbenzanthracene(DMBA). The reduction in glutathione content and protein content was considered in the study to get the effect of betulinic acid. They observed the lower level of mixed function oxidases those are responsible for the conversion of carcinogen to electrophile and further increase in phase II enzymes which participated in the removal of electrophiles by sulfation or conjugation under betulinic acid treatment . Also reported that betulinic acid effectively removed or neutralized the reactive species by the action of phase II enzymes and such an effect was demonstrated from the specific activities of antioxidative enzymes which were found to b e lower as compared to positive control (DMBA-treated group) and in some cases even that of untreated control. They also found a pronounced effect of betulinic acid in protecting the animals from lipid peroxidation as evident from the reduced levels of TBARS, conjugated diene, and lipid hydroperoxide formation. Inhibition of SREBP1 activity through AMPK-mTOR-SREBP signaling pathway using betulinic acid was studied (Kim et al.2013) . Insulin-resistant HepG2 cells, primary rat hepatocytes and liver tissue from high-fat fed ICR mice were used to get insight of the mechanism responsible for anti fatty liver effect . Accumulations of triglyceride are the indication of fat deposition that was analyzed by â€Å"Oil Red O staining†, which suppression was reported by betulinic acid. Calcium-calmodulin dependent protein kinase kinase (CAMKK) and AMP-activated protein kinase (AMPK) both were activated by betulinic acid while on the other hand the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR), pr otein levels of sterol regulatory element-binding protein 1 (SREBP1), and S6 kinase (S6K) were all reduced when hepatocytes were treated with betulinic acid for up to 24 hours. Reduced lipogenesis leading to low lipid accumulation, nuclear translocation and repressed SREBP1 target gene expression in HepG2 cells and primary hepatocytes, suppression of SREBP1 mRNA expression and activation of AMPK via phosphorylation through betulinic acid were also highlighted in the study. Overall they suggested that betulinic acid could be promising molecule effectively ameliorating intracellular lipid accumulation in liver cells preventing fatty liver diseases. Reduction in skin hyper-pigmentation using betuinic acid from Vitis amurensis root and its anti-melanogenic effect and precise mechanism underlying the anti-melanogenic activity of betulinic acid in B16F10 cells were investigated (Jin et al. (2014). Betulinic acid significantly reduced 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (IBMX)-induced melanin synt hesis by inhibiting tyrosinase, tyrosinase related protein (TRP)-1, and TRP-2 expression through the modulation of their corresponding transcription factors in B16F10 cells. In addition, phosphorylation of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/extra cellular regulated kinase (ERK) and phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K) involved in the melanogenesis processes, were ameliorated by betulinic acid treatment. Specific inhibitors were used, PD98059 (for MEK/ERK) and LY294002 (for PI3K/Akt respectively) to confirm the role of MEK/ERK and PI3K/Akt signaling pathway in the melanogenesis. Consequently, betulinic acid inhibited melanin production by tyrosinase, TRP-1, and TRP-2 inhibition through the regulation of CREB and MITF, which was accompanied with MEK/ERK and PI3K/Akt inactivation in IBMX-stimulated B16F10 cells. Finally these results expressed a novel molecular function of betulinic acid melanogenesis, which in turn enhances our understanding on the application of cosmetic therapy for reducing. Investigation were done on betulinic acid mediated fat mobilization by enhancing the level of lipolysis in adipose tissue that showed the antiobesity properties of betulinic acid with their possible mechanisms (Kim et al.2012). The lipolytic effects of betulinic acid were assayed in rat adipose tissues with inhibition of anti-lipase function and pancreatic lipase activity of betulinic acid in vitro which lead to prevent the elevation of plasma triacylglycerol levels, after oral administration of a lipid emulsion to rats where activity of cAMP-dependent phosphodiesterase was also measured. Betulinic acid inhibited pancreatic lipase activity in a dose-dependent manner at concentrations of 1.5-100à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ µM (ICà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â€š ¬ value of 21.10à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ °Ã‚ µM) prevented the elevation of plasma triacylglycerol level after 2 hours of oral administration of the lipid emulsion at a dose of 100à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã¢â‚¬ °mg/kg concluded the strong lipo lytic effect of betulinic acid which was mediated by cAMP-dependent phosphodiesterase inhibition. Betulinic acid exerted antiobesity effects by directly inhibiting pancreatic lipase, that can prevent the absorption of lipid from the small intestine. Recent studies on the chemical as well biological synthesis of the betulinic acid derivatives , they used fungi in combination with plant tissue culture of carrot and found that the most active derivative as , 3-(2,4-dinitrophenyl)hydrazono-lup-(20R)-29-oxolupan-28-oic acid, showed IC50values between 1.76 and 2.51ÃŽ ¼M against five human cancer cell lines (Baratto et al. 2013). The most selective, 3-hydroxy-20-(2, 4-dinitrophenyl) hydrazono-29-norlupan-28-oic acid, was five to seven times more selective for cancer cells when compared to fibroblasts. The cell cycle studies and apoptosis induction, with high cytotoxicity and selectivity on the tumour cell shown the efficacy of the transformed molecule. The design and synthesis of seco deri vtives from the alteration in the â€Å"A† ring of betulinic acid were carried (Hsin-Yi Hung 2014). A group of compounds were synthesized and their enhanced chemopreventive ability in vitro short term induced assays were done in Raji cells, C28 modified analogs shown significant activation. One of the modified derivative was found to shown 100% inhibition of EBV-EA at 1Ãâ€"103molratio/TPA ,73.4%, 35.9%, and 8.4% inhibition at 5Ãâ€"102, 1Ãâ€"102, and10molratio/TPA, respectively, comparable with curcumin at high concentration. In an investigation the role of betulinic acid co-regulation with vitamin D3,was reported that showed that betulinic acid improves insulin secretion with increasing glycogen content and glucose uptake in muscle tissue(Castro et al.2014). It was also reported that betulinic acid enhances the GLUT4 immunocontent and its translocation was supported by GLUT4 itself as well it does not cause hyper-calcemia that is very significant from the drug discovery pe rspective. In search of safe and natural treatment of obesity betulinic acid was tried as anti-obese drug on swiss albino male mice fed with high fat diet. Betulinic acid was extracted from ethanolic root extract of Clusia nemorosa (Rao et al. 2009).They treated mice at 50mg/kg body weight with control where they found significant control on the The therapeutic potential of betulinic acid on bone metastases and skeletal complications in breast cancer patients were investigated (Park et al.2014). They suggested the protective and therapeutic potential of betulinic acid on cancer-associated bone diseases. This is the first report indicating effect of betulinic acid on breast cancer cells, osteoblastic cells, and osteoclasts in the vicious cycle of osteolytic bone metastasis. Betulinic acid reduced cell viability and the production of parathyroid hormone-related protein (PTHrP), a major osteolytic factor, in MDA-MB-231 human metastatic breast cancer cells stimulated with or without tumor growth factor-ÃŽ ². An increase in the receptor activator of nuclear factor-kappa B ligand (RANKL) / osteoprotegerin ratio was blocked by betulinic acid through down regulating RANKL protein expression in PTHrP-treated human osteoblastic cells. Not only that the inhibition of RANKL-induced osteoclastogenesis in murine bone marrow macrophages an d decreased the production of resorbed area in plates with a bone biomimetic synthetic surface by suppressing the secretion of matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-2, MMP-9, and cathepsin K in RANKL-induced osteoclasts was observed by betulinic acid. Furthermore, oral administration of betulinic acid inhibited bone loss in mice intra-tibially inoculated with breast cancer cells and in ovariectomized mice causing estrogen deprivation, as supported by the restored bone morphometric parameters and serum bone turnover markers. Taken together, these findings suggest that betulinic acid may have the potential to prevent bone loss in patients with bone metastases and cancer treatment-induced estrogen deficiency. A pioneer study on athymic nude mice, bearing MCF-7 breast adenocarcinoma xenografts was taken as in vitro cytotoxic and in vivo anti-tumor model (Damle et al. 2013). The antitumour activity of betulinic acid was studied at 50 and100 mg/kg body weights, whereas cytotoxic activity of MCF- 7 cells with IC50 value of 13.5 µg/ml was studied by MTT assay. Betulinic acid treatment shown significant reduction in tumour size of 77 and 52% tumour size (100 and 50 mg/kg body weight respectively) in addition decreased angiogenesis, proliferation and invasion in betulinic acid treated mice were also highlighted through histopathological studies. Through topomer CoMFA , some 35 derivatives of betulinic acid were prepared and tested against HT29 human colon cancer cells (Ding et al.2013) . The contour maps showed that bulky and electron-donating groups would be favorable for activity at the C-28 position, and a moderately bulky and electron-withdrawing group near the C-3 position would improve this activity. Few of the betulin derivativeswere designed and synthesized as per the modeling result, while groups such as maleyl, phthalyl, and hexahydrophthalyl (bulky electronegative groups) were directly introduced at the C-28 position. They also found consistency with predicted and actual IC50 value of the given analogsagainst HT29 cells, proving that the present topomer CoMFA model is successful and that it could potentially forward the synthesis of newbetulinic acidderivativeswith high anti-cancer activity. Five tumour cell lines were tested against three newly synthesized derivatives where 28-O-hexahydrophthalyl betulin shown the greatest anti-cancer activities and its ICà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã¢â€š ¬ values were lower than other tumour cell line except DU145.In an investigation Prunella vulgaris was used for betulinic acid and ursolic acid extraction those were responsible for the anti-estrogenic effects, suggested their potential application against estrogen-dependent tumors (Kim et al. 2014).In this study Prunella vulgaris constituents were isolated and tested their individual anti-estrogenic effects. Betulinic acids, ursolic acid, Rosmarinic acid, caffeic acid, oleanolic acid, hyperoside, rutin, were isolated from the flower stalks of P. vulgaris var. lilacina Nakai (Labiatae) which showed anti-estrogenic effects as a decreased level in the mRNA of GREB1,revealed significant anti-estrogenic effects of betulinic acid and ursolic acid, on estrogen receptors .They also demonstrated the